What is cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer affects your cervix, which is part of the female reproductive system. It is sometimes called the neck or opening of the womb.

Cervical cancer happens when cells in the cervix start growing irregularly and multiply uncontrollably.

There are two main types of cervical cancer: squamous cell cancer and adenocarcinoma. These are named after the type of cell that becomes cancerous.

How does cervical cancer develop?

Cervical cancer usually grows slowly. In people with healthy immune systems, it typically takes 15-20 years for cervical cancer to develop.

Cervical cancer begins with changes occurring in cells. These are known as abnormal cells, and they can be graded by how abnormal they are.

Sometimes, abnormal cells are destroyed by the body, so no action is needed. These are known as borderline or low-grade changes.

However, sometimes, the body is unable to deal with these cells, and they can go on to develop into cancer. These abnormal cells are referred to as pre-cancerous and are known as high grade changes.

It may be helpful to familiarise yourself with the difference between the classifications of pre-cancer, the difference between pre-cancer and cancer and the different stages of cervical cancers.

How common is cervical cancer?

There are over 3,200 cases of cervical cancer in the UK each year. Cervical cancer rates in the UK are highest in women and people with a cervix aged 30–34 years. But younger and older women can still get cervical cancer so it’s important you attend screening appointments.

What causes cervical cancer?

Nearly all cervical cancers are caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV is the name given to a group of viruses with more than 100 different types. Not all of them are cancer causing, the ones that can cause cancer are known as high-risk HPV. HPV is very common, and most people will get the virus at some point in their life.

HPV is spread through close skin-to-skin contact during any type of sexual activity with a partner.

Most of us won’t realise we have HPV. It can stay at very low or undetectable levels for many years without causing problems. In most cases, the body’s immune system will eliminate the virus within two years. This means an HPV infection may have come from a partner a long time ago.

What can increase the risk of cervical cancer?

Although almost all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV, there are other risk factors that can increase the risk of developing cervical cancer:

• If you have human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or AIDS however this might be reduced if you’re having treatment for HIV
• If you have another sexually transmitted infection alongside HPV e.g. chlamydia
• Smoking
• Taking the combined contraceptive pill for more than 5 years (this risk reduces once you stop taking it)
• Family history of cervical cancer in immediate female relatives (mother, sister, daughter)
• Having children and this increases if you had your first baby before 17 than if you were over 25

What can reduce the risk of cervical cancer?

Anything that can reduce your risk of getting HPV and that supports your immune system to clear it if you do can help to reduce your risk of cervical cancer. You can reduce your risk of developing cervical cancer by:

• attending your ​​cervical cancer screening
• getting the HPV vaccine
• using condoms when having sex – this can reduce (but not totally eliminate) your chance of getting HPV
• stopping smoking
• eating a healthy diet to support your immune system

It’s estimated that 99.8% of cervical cancers are preventable.

What are the symptoms of cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer often has no symptoms in its early stages. Most people are diagnosed through the NHS cervical screening programme. That’s why cervical screening is so important.

The most common symptoms of cervical cancer are:

• unusual bleeding from your vagina. For example, when it is not your period, after sex or after you have been through the menopause.
• pain during sex
• differences to your vaginal discharge
• pain in your lower tummy, lower back or between your hip bones (pelvis).

If you have these symptoms speak to your GP, don’t wait for your next screening appointment.

What is cervical cancer screening?

Screening is one of the best ways to protect yourself from cervical cancer. Since screening started, the number of women dying from cervical cancer has halved.

Also known as a smear test, cervical screening checks the health of your cervix. It checks for high-risk HPV and if positive, the cells are looked at to see if they are pre-cancerous. It’s not a test for cancer, but it can help prevent cancer by spotting any problems early.

You’re automatically invited for screening if you’re:

• between the ages of 25 and 64
• registered as female with a GP surgery.

Trans men do not receive invitations if registered as male with their GP but are still entitled to screening if they have a cervix. Make sure you speak to your GP and ensure you are invited for screening if this applies to you.

Cervical cancer can spread to other areas of the body. That’s why it’s important to always attend your screening appointments to spot it early.

Find out more about cervical cancer screening.

What is the HPV vaccine?

The HPV vaccine helps to protect against cancers caused by HPV and is given as one injection.

Boys and girls are offered the vaccine between 12 and 13 years old (Year 8 at school), but if they miss it for any reason, they can still get it for free on the NHS until their 25th birthday if:

• girls were born after 1 September 1991
• boys were born after 1 September 2006

The NHS website also has lots of information about the HPV vaccine.

How is cervical cancer diagnosed?

If your smear test found signs of abnormal cells or if you spoke to your GP about possible symptoms, you’ll have some tests.

The most common test is a colposcopy. A speculum will be placed into the vagina to enable the colposcopist to see your cervix, and a microscope with a light at the end is used to study the cervix in more detail (the microscope isn’t inserted into the vagina). The colposcopist may apply some dye to the cervix to help highlight any abnormal cells.

Depending on the result, you may have some other tests, including:

• a biopsy where a small sample of cells and tissues are taken from your cervix
• scans including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerised tomography (CT)
• pelvic examination
• blood tests
• a hysteroscopy, which looks inside your womb using a narrow telescope

During diagnosis, the cancer may be staged, which indicates the size and whether it has spread, and helps to inform the treatment plan. Find out more about cervical cancer staging on the Macmillan website.

What are the treatments for cervical cancer?

There are different treatments for cervical cancer. The best treatment for you will depend on the type, grade and stage of cervical cancer you have, how big the tumour is and if it has spread.

Treatments for cervical cancer include:

• surgery
• chemotherapy – medicines to kill cancer cells
• radiotherapy – high-energy rays of radiation to kill cancer cells
• targeted medicines – which can make the cancer smaller or stop it from growing

If you are diagnosed with cervical cancer, it is likely that you will receive a combination of these treatments. Your doctor can discuss the options with you, and you’ll be able to ask them any questions that you might have.

It’s a good idea to discuss what your options are and the benefits and risks of each so that you can reach a decision that is best for you. Sometimes appointments can feel overwhelming, so it can be helpful to write down your questions in advance and take a second person along or ask if you can record the appointment.

For more information about cervical cancer treatments, visit the NHS website.

Can cervical cancer be cured?

Cervical cancer is often treatable, but this can depend on how early the cancer is detected. As with all cancers, catching it early makes it easier to treat. That’s why it’s important to attend your screening appointments and go to your GP if you spot any symptoms.

Where can I find support for cervical cancer?

Worries about a possible diagnosis or living with cancer can be very challenging. Sometimes it can help to speak to people who understand and have experience of a cervical cancer diagnosis.

You can read Aoife’s story of cervical cancer.

If you’d like more information or support for a cervical cancer diagnosis, there are places you can go to get support.

These organisations have more information and support:

• NHS
• Cancer Research UK
• Macmillan

You can also watch our webinars on gynaecological cancers, which feature experts and people with lived experience:

• Preventing cervical cancer – with Ms Theresa Freeman-Wang, Hannah Dwyer and Dr Maria Paraskevaidi
• Let’s talk gynaecological (gynae) cancers – with Dr Neil Ryan and Sbba Siddique
• Let's talk gynaecological cancers webinar – with Dr Sarah Kitson

Read about our cervical cancer research

As a women’s health charity, we fund research to save and change the lives of women, girls and babies.

Our research played a part in establishing the link between HPV and cervical cancer, resulting in the first preventative school-wide vaccination programme.

And we are currently co-funding a research study with the British Gynaecological Cancer Society to investigate if an innovative new technology can help detect and treat cervical and vulval cancers faster and more accurately.